Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (2003 Revision)
Appendix C. Dairy Farm Construction Standards and Milk
Production
(Table of Contents)
I. TOILET AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL FACILITIES
FLUSH TOILETS
Flush toilets are preferable to pit privies, earth closets
or chemical toilets at both dairy farms and milk plants. Their installation
shall conform to the Local or State plumbing regulations. Toilets shall
be located in a well-lighted and well-ventilated room. Fixtures shall be
protected against freezing. The following shall be considered defects in
flush-toilet installations:
- Insufficient water pressure or volume;
- Leaky plumbing;
- Clogged sewers, as evidenced by overflowing toilet
bowl;
- Broken tile lines or clogged disposal field;
- Access of dairy lactating animals to the effluent
below the sewer or disposal-field discharge;
- Effluent coming to the surface of the ground in the
absorption field;
- Toilet room floor soaked with urine or other
discharges;
- Offensive odors or other evidence of lack of
cleanliness; or
- Location of soil lines, septic tank, absorption
field or leaching pit closer to the source of water supply than the limits
indicated in Appendix D.
SEPTIC TANKS
Disposal of the wastes from toilets should preferably
be into a sanitary-sewer system. Where such systems are not available to
a dairy farm or milk plant, the minimum satisfactory method should include
treatment in a septic tank, with the effluent discharged into the soil.
Where soil of satisfactory permeability is not available, the effluent shall be
disposed of in accordance with the rules of the Local or State Health
Authority. It is preferable to treat floor drainage, wastes from washing
of utensils, etc., in separate systems. When such wastes are combined
with toilet wastes in the septic tank system, careful consideration must be
given to the expected flow in the design of both the septic tank and the
leaching system.
The septic tank shall be located a safe distance from water
sources as determined by consideration of the criteria indicated in Appendix
D. The Regulatory Agency shall review and approve proposed installations
prior to the initiation of construction. The location should permit easy access
for inspection and cleaning. The site should be chosen to make the
largest possible area available for the disposal field.
The size of the septic tank should be based on the average
daily flow of sewage, a retention period of approximately twenty-four (24)
hours and adequate sludge storage. The minimum liquid capacity of a
septic tank should be 3,000 liters (750 gallons). The outlet should be
baffled to prevent scum from passing out with the overflow. The septic
tank cover or slab should be watertight, designed to be insect and rodent proof
and to withstand any load likely to be placed upon it. Each tank should
have a manhole for each compartment, when it is provided with a solid-slab
cover. The manhole covering should be made watertight. Septic tanks
should be constructed of materials that are not subject to excessive corrosion
or deterioration.
DISPOSAL FIELDS FOR SEPTIC TANKS
A distribution box is considered desirable in every field
system. The design of the field should be based on the expected sewage
flow, the actual absorptive quality of the soil and the total bottom area of
the trenches. Tile or perforated pipe designed for this use, of not less
than 10 millimeters (4 inches) diameter, is recommended for field
laterals. Laterals should be separated by at least three (3) times the
width of the trenches, with a minimum of 2 meters (6 feet).
Trenches should be filled with broken stone or screened
gravel, from a depth of at least 15 centimeters (6 inches) below the distributing
pipes, to a level at least 5 centimeters (2 inches) above the top of the
lines. When drain tile is used, joints should be open about 5 millimeters
(1/4 inch), and the openings protected by tarpaper strips over the top and
sides. The aggregate should be protected from loose backfill by means of
a separating strip of untreated building paper or similar material.
Under no condition should a field with less than 13.9 square meters (150 square
feet) of effective absorption area (30 meters of 46 centimeters (100 linear
feet of 18-inch) trench be provided for any individual unit. The maximum
length of individual lines should not exceed 30 meters (100 feet). The
slope of the field's lateral lines may vary from 5 centimeters (2 inches) to 10
centimeters (4 inches) per 30 meters (100 feet), but should never exceed 15
centimeters (6 inches) per 30 meters (100 feet). It is desirable to
have the tile lines within 46 centimeters (18 inches) of the finished grade;
however, the total depth of the lateral trenches should never average more than
91 centimeters (36 inches).
In some instances seepage pits may provide a more
satisfactory means of disposal of effluent. Walls should be permeable and
the liquid capacity should be not less than that of the septic tank.
Total wall area should be proportionate to absorptive quality of the soil and
to expected sewage flow.
Information as to methods of making percolation tests to
determine absorptive quality of the soil may be obtained from Local and/or
State Health Departments. From the same sources, advice may be obtained
as to trench areas needed for various numbers of users, in relation to observed
percolation rates. In view of their close knowledge of local conditions,
it is recommended that such assistance be requested before an absorption system
is constructed.
EARTH-PIT PRIVY
The earth-pit privy offers the most suitable type of excreta
disposal unit for the dairy farm where water carriage systems of disposal
cannot be provided. While there are many different designs in use, the
basic elements are the same in all cases.
-
General: The earth pit should be of such
capacity that it may be used for several years without requiring the privy to
be moved. Excreta and toilet paper are deposited directly into the
pit. Aerobic bacteria break down the complex organic material into more
or less inert material. Insects, animals and surface water must be
prevented from entering the pit. It is essential that the privy be
designed and constructed so that the pit can be kept fly tight.
- Location: The location of the privy
shall take into account the need to prevent the contamination of water
supplies. The criteria of Appendix D. shall be applied. On sloping
ground, it shall be located at a lower elevation than the water supply.
On level ground, the area around both the privy and water supply should be
mounded with earth. If the installation of an earth-pit privy will
endanger the safety of the water supply, other methods of disposal must be
used.
The site should be accessible to all potential users.
Consideration should be given to the direction of prevailing winds to reduce
fly and odor nuisances. The privy pit should not encroach within 2 meters
(6 feet) of any building line or fence, in order to allow proper construction
and maintenance.
-
Pit, Sill, and Mound: A minimum pit capacity
of 4.6 cubic meters (50 cubic feet) is recommended. The pit should be
tightly sheathed for a meter or several feet below the earth surface, but
openings in the sheathing are desirable below this depth. The sheathing
should extend from 25-50 millimeters (1-2 inches) above the natural ground
surface, to provide space between the sill and the upper portion of the
sheathing, so that the floor and building will not rest on the sheathing.
A reinforced concrete sill should be provided for support of the floor and
superstructure. The sill should be placed on firm, undisturbed earth.
An earth mound, at least equal in thickness to the concrete
sill, should be constructed with a level area 46 millimeters (18 inches) away
from the sill in all directions.
- Floor and Riser: Impervious materials,
such as concrete, are believed to be most suitable for the floor and
riser. Because privy units are commonly used as urinals, the use of
impervious materials for risers is desirable in the interest of
cleanliness. In cold climates, wood treated with a preservative, such as
creosote, has been found to be durable and to reduce the problem of
condensation. Therefore, in some sections of the country, wood may be used
if approved by the Local or State Health Authority.
-
Seat and Lid: Both seat and lid should
be hinged to permit raising. Material used in construction should be
light in weight, but durable. Seats should be comfortable. Lids
shall be self-closing. Two (2) objections to self-closing seat lids
are: Discomfort from the lid resting on the upper portion of the user's
back and contact of the oftentimes soiled or frost-covered bottom surface of
the lid with the user's clothing. A seat lid has been devised which
overcomes these objections. This lid is raised to a vertical position by
lifting it from the rear, so that the top surface of the lid is against the
user, rather than the bottom surface that is normally exposed to the pit.
- Vent: Venting practices differ in many
parts of the United States, because of differences in climatic
conditions. In some States, particularly those in the South, vents have
been omitted entirely and results from this practice appear to be
satisfactory. Vents may pass vertically from either the pit or the riser,
through the roof or directly through the wall near the floor. The
vertical vent from pit or riser may lead to a horizontal vent passing through
both walls or diagonally across a corner of the building.
In all cases, vents are screened. Galvanized,
steel-wire screens dipped in paint, copper screens and bronze screens are
used. Nearly all designs employ a screen with 6 (six) meshes to the
centimeter (sixteen (16) meshes to the inch). Hardware cloth is used to
cover the outside entrance to vents to prevent entrance of large objects that
would clog the vent.
It is stated by some authorities that venting serves no
useful purpose and that vents should be eliminated from earth-pit
privies. Satisfactory recommendations with respect to vents can be made
only after certain technical problems have been solved. The most
important of these is the moisture condensation problem due to the temperature
difference between the pit and the superstructure. The use of a cold
wall, to condense moisture within the pit, has been suggested. In view of
the uncertain value of venting, no recommendations are offered.
- Superstructure: Privy structures are
standardized to some extent. The majority are 1.2 meters by 1.2 meters (4 x 4
feet) in plan, with a height of 2 meters (6.5 feet) in front, and 1.8 meters
(5.5 feet) at the rear. A roof with a 1-to-4 slope is commonly used. The
building should be constructed of substantial material, painted for resistance
to weather and fastened solidly to the floor slab. Proper roof overhang
should be provided to dispatch rainwater from the roof away from the mound.
The roof should be constructed of watertight materials, such
as wood, composition shingles or metal. Achieving ventilation of the building
by omitting siding beneath the roof is common, except in cold climates, where
the siding is usually perforated. Windows are sometimes used in the
northern latitudes. Provision of coat hooks is desirable.
- Defects in Earth-Pit Privies: The following
shall be considered defects in pit-toilet installations:
- Evidence of caving around the edges of the pit;
- Signs of overflow, or other evidence that the
pit is full;
- Seat covers broken open or not self-closing;
- Broken, perforated or unscreened vent pipe;
- Uncleanliness of any kind in the toilet
building;
- Toilet room opening directly into milkhouse; and
- Evidence of light entering the pit, except
through the seat when the seat cover is raised.
MASONRY-VAULT PRIVY
A masonry-vault privy is essentially a pit privy in
which the pit is lined with impervious materials and in which provision is
made for the removal of excreta.
- Function: Masonry vaults are used
chiefly where the ground water table is close to the ground surface or where it
is necessary to prevent contamination of nearby water courses, wells and
springs. They are also recommended for use in limestone formations to
prevent contamination of water streams in the solution channels of the
limestone. This type of disposal unit is satisfactory only where adequate
maintenance and servicing are assured.
- Construction: Masonry vaults may be
constructed of brick, stone or concrete, with the latter preferred. The
vault must be watertight to keep out ground water and to prevent leakage of the
vault's contents. A readily accessible cleanout door is necessary. It
shall be constructed to prevent access of insects, animals and surface water to
the vault's contents. The floor of the superstructure, which forms a
partial covering for the vault, must be impervious. Concrete is recommended.
CHEMICAL TOILET
In some areas where pit toilets might menace water supplies,
where a sufficient volume of water for the operation of flush toilets is not
available and where there is no prohibitive statute or ordinance, the chemical
toilet may be accepted. Provided that it:
- Has a receiving tank of acid resisting
material with an opening easily accessible for cleaning;
- Has a bowl, of nonabsorbent materials, sufficiently
elevated above the receiving basin to prevent splashing the user;
- Has the tank and bowl vented with at least a 7.6
centimeters (3 inches) screened pipe, preferably of cast iron, extending at
least 60 centimeters (2 feet) above the roof line;
- Has the tank charged, at proper intervals,
with chemicals of a bactericidal nature and concentration;
- Is placed in a well-lighted and
well-ventilated room which does not open directly into the milkhouse; and
- Has an effective method of final disposal,
including burial, or a leaching vat or a cesspool where it will not endanger
any water supply.
- Type: Chemical toilets differ
from privies, in that they are commonly placed inside the dwelling, whereas
privies are generally located apart from the dwelling. There are, in
general two (2) types of chemical toilets:
- The
commode type, in which a pail containing a chemical solution is placed
immediately below the seat; and
- The
tank type, in which a metal tank holding the chemical solution is placed in the
ground directly beneath the seat. A pipe or conduit connects the riser
with the tank. Tanks are usually cleaned by draining to a subsurface seepage
pit.
- Function: Toilets of this type are
predominant in cold climates, where it is found desirable to have toilet
facilities in or near the home, and where running water is not available for
flush toilets.
- Chemicals: Sodium hydroxide is commonly used
to prepare the caustic solution for either commode or tank type chemical
toilets. The chemical is dissolved in water and placed in the
receptacle. The purpose of the chemical solution is to emulsify the
fecal matter and paper and to liquefy the contents. In order to
accomplish this action, the chemical solution must be maintained at proper
strength and the mixture must be agitated each time the toilet is used. Odors
are produced chiefly by the liberation of ammonia, when the caustic solution is
weak, or when mixing by agitation is not carried out.
Difficulties are encountered when the caustic solution
becomes diluted and fails to emulsify the fecal matter. When this occurs,
the chemical solution breaks down, due to absorption of carbon dioxide from the
air, and the solution ceases to be caustic. The decomposition of fecal matter
produces foul odors.
- Sludge Disposal: Disposal of the
resultant mixture is a disagreeable task. In the case of small commode
types, the usual method of disposal is burial in the earth. Tank units
are usually so constructed that the tank is emptied into a seepage pit. When emulsification is not complete, particles of paper clog the seepage pit
requiring corrective measures. Because of fundamental differences in
design, chemical toilets resemble other types of privies only in the seat
construction and manner of venting. Usually, risers or stools
manufactured commercially are used.
Chemical toilets shall be used only where there is assurance
of constant maintenance and where safe disposal of the contents is
assured. Neither sludge nor liquid effluent from chemical toilet tanks
shall be discharged to a sewage system in which treatment processes are
involved. Otherwise, the chemical constituents of the sludge or liquid
effluent may seriously interfere with the biological action upon which such
treatment processes depend.
- Defects: The following shall be
considered defects in a chemical toilet installation:
- Violation of any of the above
requirements;
- Disagreeable odors indicating to-infrequent charging with chemicals or
inadequate concentration of chemicals in the charge;
- Evidence of improper disposal of the tank
contents; and
- Lack of cleanliness in the toilet compartment
and room.
CONSTRUCTION PLANS
Detailed construction drawings for septic tanks, pit
privies, masonry-vault privies and chemical toilets complying with State
regulations may be secured from the Local and State Health Authority.
II. GUIDELINE #45 - GRAVITY FLOW GUTTERS FOR MANURE REMOVAL
IN MILKING BARNS
Published by the Dairy Practices Council
The gravity flow gutter concept for manure removal comes
from Europe. Manure falls into a deep gutter in the barn floor and then flows
by gravity to a cross channel or outlet pipe to storage. A low (8-20
centimeters) (3"-8") dam retains a lubricating liquid layer over
which the manure flows (Fig. 1). After one (1) to three (3) weeks in a
newly started gutter, the manure surface forms an incline of 1‑3% above
the dam. Then the manure moves continuously over the lip. The
gutter must be deep enough to contain manure sloped at this shallow angle.
Figure 1. Side Cross Section of a Gravity Flow Gutter
Figure 2. Stepped Gravity Flow Gutter
Figure 3. Cross Section of a Typical Gutter and Grate
Because manure moves by its own weight, no mechanical
equipment is required to remove it from the barn. Generally the cost of
the gutter and cover grates is less than the cost of installing, operating and
maintaining a mechanical cleaner.
This system is neither a flush gutter, where 115-225 liters
(30-60 gallons) of water per cow is needed to remove manure from the gutter,
nor is it an under-barn storage that is open to the barn. Rather, it is a conveying
channel that carries the manure from behind the cow to the outside
storage. The top surface of the slurry has been recorded to move 3 meters
(10 feet) per hour.
CONSTRUCTION
- Gutter Depth: Gutter depth depends on
the length of the gutter and the angle of incline of the manure surface.
Design in this guideline assumes the manure surface forms a 3% slope. Most diets form wetter manure, and with no bedding the slope may be 1%
less. The bottom should be level so the dam will hold a uniform liquid
layer. The maximum depth of the gutter at the end opposite the discharge
shall not exceed 138 centimeters (54 inches). In addition, the outlet
shall be clear of obstructions.
The depth includes an allowance for a 15 centimeters (6
inches) dam and 8 centimeters (3 inches) deep grates.
Adding steps may decrease the maximum manure depth. The
depth from the bottom of each dam to the bottom of the next level varies
depending on the distance between steps. (Refer to Figure 2)
Table 6. Slot Size vs. Cattle Age
Age
(Months) |
1-6 |
6-12 |
12-24 |
Over 24 |
Slot Size
(in.) |
1 - 1 1/8 |
1 1/8 - 1 3/8 |
1 3/8 - 1 5/8 |
1 1/2 - 1 5/8 |
- Width of Gutters: The bottom of the
gutter shall not exceed 91 centimeters (36 inches) in width. A 76
centimeters (30 inches) wide gutter is recommended. The gutter opening may be
narrowed to 50-60 centimeters (20-24 inches) in order to reduce the size and
costs of grates.
- Overflow Dam: The dam retains a
lubricating liquid layer over the channel, which is essential to maintain
flow. Typical heights range between 8 and 20 centimeters (3 and 8
inches). Dams, if removable, would facilitate total cleanout, when and if
necessary. Concrete, a steel plate, or a plank may be used to construct
the dam. Caulking may be needed to seal the dam.
Table 7. Gravity Flow Gutter
Depth vs. Length for
Manure from Lactating Animals
|
Length |
Depth |
|
Meters |
Feet |
Cm. |
Inches |
| 12 |
40 |
58 |
12 |
| 18 |
60 |
78 |
18 |
| 24 |
80 |
96 |
24 |
| 30 |
100 |
114 |
30 |
| 36 |
120 |
132 |
36 |
- Length: A 70 meters (226 feet) long
gutter has worked, but typical distances between dams range from 12 to 24
meters (40 to 80 feet). Longer channels must be deeper; hence, they may cost
more because they require more concrete and stronger forms.
Table 8. Step Height vs. Length for Stepped
Gravity Flow Gutters
|
Step Height |
Length
Between
Dams |
For 1.5%
Manure
Incline |
For 3%
Manure
Incline |
| 40' |
7" |
14" |
| 50' |
9" |
18" |
| 60' |
11" |
22" |
| 70' |
13" |
25" |
| 80' |
15" |
29" |
- Grates: Commercial steel grates for
stall barns and concrete slats for freestall barns are generally
available. Table 7 suggests slot widths. Grates for stall barns are
made from round or flat steel stock.
- Cross Channel: The cross channel may
be constructed like the gutter. At least a 60 centimeters (2 feet) drop
from the top of the dam to the bottom of the cross channel is suggested to
prevent backup of manure into it. The channel may be extended directly to
storage The slurry should enter the bottom; to prevent storage gases and
cold air from returning up the channel. Channel depth, below grade,
should be sufficient to prevent freezing.
Gravity flow via a concrete, steel or plastic pipe may also
be used to transfer manure to the bottom of the outside storage. Pipe as
small as 38 centimeters (15 inches) diameter has been used successfully. However, 60 centimeters (24 inches) diameter pipe is recommended.
Do not empty channels into large sumps or pits within, or
having direct openings into the barn. These storages will produce gas
and odors that will be drawn into the barn through the ventilation systems.
Figure 4. Manure Transfer to Storage
MANAGEMENT
- Flooding of Gutters: Prior to stocking the
building, fill the gutters with 8-15 centimeters (3-6 inches) of water to
start the lubrication layer.
- Bedding Usage: The type and amount of
bedding used is important to successful operation. Up to .5 kilograms (1
pound) per lactating animal per day of sawdust, fine cut shavings or peanut
hulls still allows the system to work. Some have worked with long straw
bedding, but it is not recommended. More bedding or long straw increases
manure stiffness and may clog the gutter. Lactating animal mats allow
minimum bedding use. Sometimes water may need to be added, depending upon
the feed ration and amount of bedding used.
- Wastage and Deposits: Keep feed and hay
out of the gutter. Barn lime and soil brought in from outside may settle
to the bottom. For this reason, the overflow dam, on some gutters, is removable
for clean out. Buildup of solids has not been a problem under normal
management, although the gutter will need cleaning if it has not been used for
some time. Watch for islands of solids, especially where excess bedding or
feed builds up. Cut these islands free of the walls to keep them flowing.
- Cleaning Grates: Grates need cleaning
at least weekly and, preferably, daily. A broom connected to a hose makes
the job easy.
- Flies and Odors: Flies have caused
little or no problems. Biodegradable oil such as mineral oil may be
sprayed on the manure surface to control them. Little or no odors have been
observed in barns with good ventilation. There is no need to install fans
to ventilate the gutters.
III. CONVALESCENT (MATERNITY) PENS IN MILKING BARNS
AND STABLES
While the requirement for concrete floors in milking barns
and stables is necessary for good sanitation, climatic conditions in some areas
of the country has created a need for convalescent (maternity) pens to be
located in milking barns and stables.
Therefore, convalescent pens may be allowed in the milk barn
or stable. Provided that the following requirements are met:
- All floors in the production milking facility, with
the exception of the convalescent pens, must be of an impervious surface, with
slopes for drainage as currently listed in the regulations.
- Milk from animals milked in convalescent pens with
non-impervious floors must not enter the distribution system or be sold.
- Routine milking in pens shall not be allowed.
- Pens must be located in a location so as not to
contaminate milk holding transfer facilities or water supplies.
Convalescent pens cannot be within 15 meters (50 feet) of a well.
- A minimum of a 15 centimeters (6 inches) curb shall
be provided on all exposed sides of the pen(s).
- Convalescent pens shall be well bedded, clean and
dry at all times.
- No water faucet or drinking fountain shall be
located within the curbed area.
- State sanitarians, at their discretion, may
require cleaning and/or reconstruction of such pens, based at intervals as
necessary when the pens present a sanitation problem.
- It is recommended that the number of pens be
limited to one (1) per fifty (50) lactating animals.
Figure 5. Side Cross Section of a Convalescent Pen
IV. GUIDELINES FOR CONVENTIONAL STALL BARN WITH GUTTER
GRATES OVER LIQUID MANURE STORAGE
INTRODUCTION
The use of liquid manure storage under milking barns can be
a cost, labor and energy efficient method for handling dairy animal
wastes. This type of system can aid in pollution control and will provide
a safe and healthy environment for cattle and humans under the following
guidelines:
- Plans for the construction of a conventional stall
barn, with gutter grates over liquid manure storage, shall be submitted to the
Regulatory Agency for approval before work is begun. Upon completion of
the work, the builder shall furnish the purchaser with a signed written
statement certifying that the system is constructed so as to be in full
compliance with these guidelines.
- The storage capacity of the liquid manure tank
shall be for a minimum of nine months.
- A negative pressure mechanical ventilation system
must be installed to meet the following requirements: (Refer to Figures 6 and
7)
- Provide a maximum exhaust
capacity of forty (40) air changes per hour from the occupied area. Of
this total, about one-half, twenty (20) air changes per hour shall be
considered the cold weather part of the system and shall be exhausted through
the manure storage area. The remaining twenty (20) air changes per hour
shall be considered the warm weather part of the system and shall be exhausted
through the barn walls.
- Of the twenty (20) air
changes exhausted through the manure storage area there shall be a minimum
continuous exhaust of four (4) air changes per hour. The additional cold
weather capacity of about sixteen (16) air changes per hour shall be thermostatically
controlled. All fans exhausting from the manure storage area shall be
installed in permanent fan houses built on the exterior wall of the barn and
connected directly to the manure storage area. These fans must be
single-speed with a certified delivery rating against 6 millimeters ( 1/4 inch)
water gauge static pressure. One pit fan must operate continuously. Airflow must be from the occupied area through the gutters. The use of
variable-speed fans is prohibited.
- Fans supplying the additional
summer capacity shall be mounted to discharge directly through the barn
walls. They may be mounted on the outside of the building and the
openings closed with insulated panels in cold weather, or when mounted in the
walls be protected with an inside insulated cover to eliminate condensation
and frost formation on the shutters and mountings. Warm weather fans
are to be located on the same side of the barn as the pit fans. They
must have a certified delivery rating against 3 millimeters (1/8-inch)
water gauge static pressure and should be single speed.
- All fans, except those
providing the minimum continuous exhaust rate are to be controlled by thermostats
located away from the barn walls. All pit fans are to be in operation
before any of the wall fans are started. An electrical thermal overload
device of the proper size shall protect each fan.
- Calculation Method: To calculate the fan capacity in cubic feet per minute (cfm) for a particular
barn, multiply the length times the width times the average ceiling height,
all in feet, to obtain the volume. Divide the volume by fifteen (15) to obtain
the minimum continuous capacity of four (4) air changes per hour in cfm (4 x
15 = 60 minutes).
For Example: Barn
width 36', length 160' and average ceiling height 8'-6". This would
be a reasonable size for sixty (60) stalls and two (2) pens. The
calculation of the minimum continuous exhaust for this example would be:
36 x 160 x 8.5
15 |
= 3,264 cfm |
Total cold weather capacity of
twenty (20) air changes per hour equals five (5) times the minimum
capacity: 3,264 x 5 = 16,320 cfm.
Use two (2) fans of 3,264 each and
two (2) fans of 4,896 cfm each to make up the total. Build two (2) fan
houses. Mount one 3,264 cfm and one 4,896 cfm fan in each. Operate one
3,264 cfm fan continuously. Thermostatically control the second
3,264 cfm fan at 4.4°C (40°F). Control the two (2) larger fans with
thermostats set at 6°C (43°F) and 8°C (46°F). Divide the summer capacity
of an additional twenty (20) air changes per hour among three (3) fans of 5,440
cfm each. Locate these fans in the walls. Control them with
thermostats set to 10°C-13°C (50°F-56°F). (Refer to Figure 6 for the
approximate locations for all fans) Fans of the exact calculated capacity
are usually unavailable. Always select those having a slightly higher
rather than lower capacity.
- Adequate incoming fresh air,
to enable the fan exhaust system to function as designed, must be
provided. A continuous slot inlet with manual adjustment on one (1) side
is recommended to provide uniform fresh air distribution throughout the
barn. (Refer to Figure 7) Adjustment of the slot opening opposite
the fans is to be done manually for cold and warm weather conditions. Careful construction of the fresh air intake system is essential to the
satisfactory performance of the ventilation system.
- A stand-by generator to supply electric
current to the ventilation system, in the event of a power failure, shall be
provided.
- Construction Requirements:
- The
floor system over the pit shall be designed to safely support all animal
weight, plus the possibility of a tractor that may be needed to remove a sick
or dead animal. Agitating and pumping of the stored manure shall be done
through annexes built outside the barn. (Refer to Figures 6 and 7)
Service alley floor and lactating animal stall platforms shall be constructed
to drain to the grated gutter tank opening, located between the lactating
animal stall and the service alley.
- Waste
water from the milkhouse can be discharged into the pit. Sanitary
(toilet) waste shall not be disposed of in the manure storage tank. When
wastewater from the milkhouse is discharged into the pit, a drop pipe must be
connected to the discharge line so that the liquid waste will be deposited
beneath the surface of the tank contents to prevent turbulence and possible
odor production.
- Grates
over the gutters, tank slot openings, shall be of sufficient strength to
support all applied loads. A suitable grate design is one using 16
millimeters (5/8 inches) smooth steel bars running the length of the open
gutter. The distance between the center of the first bar and the vertical
face of the stall platform should be 57 millimeters (2 1/4 inches). The
remaining bars should be spaced 63 millimeters (2 1/2 inches)
center-to-center. Support bars crossing the gutters should be 19
millimeters (3/4 inch) diameter and spaced 40 centimeters (16 inches)
center-to-center.
- Little or no bedding can be used with this system,
rubber mats or equivalent, and lactating animal trainers shall be installed at
the time the barn is constructed. Daily cleaning of grates with a stiff
broom or scraper is recommended.
- Other construction criteria and management
practices recommended for stall dairy barns should be followed.
- Requirements for emptying holding tanks:
- Remove
all animals and post signs on all doors that no one is to enter the milking
barn during the time the tank is being agitated;
- All
pit fans must be operating during agitation and emptying;
- All
milkhouse and feed storage area openings, doors, windows, etc., must be closed;
and
- The
milking barn must remain evacuated by animals and people for at least one (1)
hour, after agitation of the holding tank is completed.
Figure 6. Schematic Diagram Showing Suggested Exhaust Fan Locations for a Typical Stall Dairy Barn with Gutter Grates Over Liquid Manure Storage
Figure 7. Schematic Diagram Showing General Pattern of Ventilation Air Movement, Slot Inlet Design and Fan House for Pit Fans
V.
DAIRY - CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
MILKING BARN, STABLE OR PARLOR
Numerous factors, including the size and topography of the
farm, the availability of utilities, the condition and disposition of existing
buildings, the dairy operator's ultimate goals for the enterprise, and the
operator's construction budget serve to make each milk producer's herd housing
problems individual and unique.
While there has been a tendency for workers to develop
strong convictions about the practicability of given housing or milking
systems, there is little doubt that the success or failure of most dairy farm
operations may be traced to good or poor planning. When the unique
problems of each system in its individual applications are given proper
consideration, the job of producing clean milk is made easier and compliance
with regulations is simplified. For example, operators of barns in which
lactating animals are housed and milked will find that efficient ventilation not
only reduces condensation but also relieves the problem of dust and mold on
walls, ceilings and windows. When window sills are sloped or windows set
flush with interior walls in stanchion barns, the accumulation of dust and
unwanted miscellaneous items is similarly lessened. Covered recessed
light fixtures remain clean longer and are less subject to damage than those
projecting from the ceiling.
Operators of milking parlor loose-housing systems, on the
other hand, will value design features such as mechanically operated doors,
which speed up animal traffic, and glazed wall finishes, which cut down the
time required for proper post-milking wash-up of the parlor. Cleaner
lactating animals result from proper planning and management of exercise yards
and bedded areas. At least 9 square meters (100 square feet) of surfaced
yard and not less than 5 square meters (50 square feet) of bedded space are
recommended for each animal to be accommodated. Provisions must also be made
for the removal at least daily of manure from exercise yards and traffic lanes.
Operators utilizing loose housing have shown considerable interest in
free-stall housing. Many workers have concluded that it provides the
solution to the problems of unclean lactating animals and excessive bedding
demands that have plagued loose housing in past years. Milk producers planning
new construction or large-scale changes in existing housing should carefully
study its features.
Adequate light must be available in all work areas in the
milking barn, stable or parlor. Because many dairy functions are frequently
performed after dark, it is important that the required minimum of ten (10)
foot-candles (110 lux) of illumination be available from artificial sources.
While absolute certainty of compliance with this requirement can only be
confirmed by the use of a light meter, experience has shown that milking barns
which otherwise meet the standards of this Ordinance will be properly
lighted when equipped with one (1) 100-watt bulb (or its fluorescent equal) for
each three (3) stanchions or per 3 meters (10 linear feet) of walkway behind
each row of lactating animals in face-in barns or between rows of lactating
animals in face-out barns. In addition, a smaller number of bulbs, equally
spaced, are recommended for feed alleys in front of the lactating
animals. When natural light is utilized, a minimum of .37 square meter (4
square feet) of window space for each 5.6 square meter (60 square feet) of
floor space is recommended.
Construction plans and suggestions for the various systems
of animal management are available to the sanitarian and the dairyman from
numerous sources, including the USDA, the county extension agent, farm
periodicals and the trade associations serving the building supply industry.
MILKHOUSE
Milkhouses should be large enough to provide adequate space
to meet present needs and should take into account the prospect of future
expansion. Installed milkhouse equipment should be readily accessible to
the operator. Aisles should be at least 76 centimeters (30 inches) wide,
with added allowance at the outlets of bulk milk tanks, adjacent to
wash-and-rinse vats and where operational conditions warrant. It is
especially important that the space available to bulk milk tanks and mechanical
cleaning systems be adequate to permit their disassembly, inspection and
servicing.
Floor drains should not be located under bulk milk tanks
unless there is sufficient room for servicing. Floor drains should not be
located directly under the outlet of a bulk milk tank. Drains and waste
disposal systems should be adequate to drain the volume of water used in
rinsing and cleaning.
Milkhouses should be well ventilated. Proper
ventilation not only avoids the obvious disadvantages of condensation on
equipment and walls, it also lengthens the useful life of the building and its
equipment. The constant need for renewal of painted surfaces, the repair of
wooden fixtures and frames and the removal of algae and mold from walls and
ceilings of poorly ventilated milkhouses can represent a continuing expense to
the operator.
Where possible, windows should be placed to provide cross
ventilation. In addition, one (1) or more ceiling vents should be located
to receive water vaporizing from wash-and-rinse vats and other sources of evaporative
moisture.
Glass brick is sometimes substituted for windows in
milkhouse construction. In these instances, mechanical ventilation must be
provided. A system affording filtered positive air pressure is
recommended over exhaust ventilation, as the latter frequently draws dust, insects,
and odors into the milkhouse.
The great demand for water under pressure in milkhouse
operations has emphasized the importance of protecting plumbing from
freezing. Devices that have proved effective, include the insulation of
water lines, the use of wrap-around heat tape, infrared lamps, and
thermostatically controlled space heaters.
Insulated milkhouses make protection against freezing easier
and more economical, and offer the additional advantage of greater comfort for
the operator. The factor of personal convenience frequently results in better
performance by the operator, with subsequent benefits to milk quality.
Automated milking and mechanical cleaning systems of milking
equipment has increased the use of hot water in the milkhouse. The
following Table indicates the volumes of water required to fill 30 meters (100
feet) of pipeline of varying diameters:
Table
9. Work Water Volume of Various Sized Pipelines
Pipe Diameter
(Inches) |
Gallons |
| 1 |
4.7 |
| 1.5 |
9.2 |
| 2 |
16.3 |
Since most cleaning installations employ a pre-rinse,
followed by wash-and-rinse cycles, this Table actually represents only
one-third (1/3) the usual milking-time demand for heated water. Also, it
does not include the "take up" of collecting jars, pumps, rubber
parts, etc.
Udder washing, bulk milk tank cleaning and similar milkhouse
tasks offer additional uses for hot water.
Sanitarians should compute the hot water demand of the
individual milking systems under their supervision and require that not less
than the minimum amount be available at all times. Milk producers should be
made aware of the fact that effective cleaning of mechanically cleaned
installations is impossible without adequate hot water and should be encouraged
to provide a supply which exceeds their expected need. Such planning avoids
emergency shortages and allows for normal expansion of the herd and facilities.
Detailed plans for milkhouses, as well as recommendations on
hot water needs, insulation, lighting and ventilation are available from power
companies, building supply associations, County Agricultural Extension Agents
and State Universities.
Refrigeration, electrical or mechanical systems powered by
gasoline or diesel engines, have no place in a milkhouse, milking barn, or in
any communicating passageway between the milkhouse and milking barn. Such
equipment is characteristically given to oil leakage and the discharge of
fumes. The space occupied by it is difficult to keep clean and frequently
becomes a gathering place for trash and flammable materials. With effective
planning, these engines and their accessory equipment can be located, without
detriment to their performance, in a separate room or building adjacent to the
barn or milkhouse.
MILKING
METHODS
Milking methods must be geared to permit the efficient
withdrawal of milk without introducing undue numbers of bacteria or causing
injury to the udder.
In addition to assessing the nation's milk producers a cost,
which has been estimated to approach $500 million annually, mastitis has been
found to pose serious public health hazards. The most widespread of these
is a gastrointestinal disorder caused by toxins produced by certain strains of
staphylococci.
It has been known for many years that a relationship exists
between mastitis and milking practices. While not all the facts are known
about mastitis, it is abundantly clear that its control is enhanced by use of
mechanically sound milking equipment and good milking practices. The
National Mastitis Council (NMC) has described a satisfactory milking
system as one which:
- Maintains a stable vacuum in the teat cup and
at a level adequate for completely milking most udders in three (3) to five (5)
minutes;
- Does not stress the tissues of the teat by
excessive stretching and ballooning;
- Produces massage without harsh action; and
- Is designed so that the entire system can be
sanitized efficiently and satisfactorily.
The NMC considers proper milking procedure to include the
following:
- Before the milking unit is applied to the udder,
the operator takes thirty (30) seconds to prepare the lactating animal in the
recommended manner to obtain milk letdown, and the milking machine should be
applied immediately thereafter;
- The teat cups are attached in a manner to limit the
volume of air drawn into the system;
- The teat cups are positioned as low on the teats as
practicable;
- The operator stays near the machine and, at the end
point of milk removal, the claw is briefly pulled down to open the teat cavity
and remove the strippings. Stripping by machine should not extend over a
period of more than fifteen to twenty (15-20) seconds. Prolonging stripping
can be injurious to the udder;
- Before removing the machine, the vacuum to the teat
cups is broken and the cups removed in a gentle manner; and
- To avoid over-milking, the operator should limit
the number of machines in use. Two (2) bucket-type units, two (2) movable
pipeline units or three (3) fixed units, in a walk-through barn, usually
represent maximum workloads with conventional milking systems.
Hooded, or small-mouthed pails may be used for carrying only
that milk which has been drawn into them by hand-milking. Their extended
use as carrying pails is considered hazardous in view of their inability to be
covered or otherwise protected from flies, dust, splash, etc.
REVERSE
FLUSH SYSTEMS
Systems are acceptable if they are designed, installed, and
operated in accordance with the following parameters for reverse flush systems:
- All product-contact surfaces shall conform to the
construction criteria of Item 9r of this Ordinance.
- An intervening break to the atmosphere shall be
provided between the water and/or chemical solution and the product and/or
product-contact surfaces at all times.
- If a pre-rinse cycle is used it shall be with safe
water.
- The system shall provide for:
- A
chemical solution cycle with a chemical solution complying with provisions of
Appendix F. of this Ordinance;
- The
chemical solution strength shall be limited to that strength necessary to
accomplish its intended effect and shall not leave a significant residual in
the milk;
- A
post-rinse cycle with safe water. The use of treated water to prevent
psychrophilic microorganism contamination should be considered; and
- A
drain cycle with sufficient time to drain or remove all moisture from the product-contact
surfaces of the reverse flush system.
- When air under pressure is used in contact with
product or solution-contact surfaces, it shall comply with the requirements for
air under pressure contained in Item 14r of this Ordinance, provided
that an exception to the piping requirement for the air piping downstream from
the terminal filter may be granted when:
- The piping
is used only for filtered air;
- At least
one (1) access point is available to determine cleanliness of the air piping;
and
- The
piping is of a smooth, non-absorbent, corrosion-resistant, non-toxic material,
including any adhesives used in joints.
In some installations, a check-valve may be required to
prevent water and/or chemical solution from entering these airlines.
DRUG RESIDUE AVOIDANCE CONTROL MEASURES
Animal identification and record keeping are critical for
avoiding milk drug residues. Producers should establish systems to ensure
that animal drugs are used properly and be able to provide evidence that
adequate control over the administration of drugs to prevent residues in milk
and/or meat has been implemented. These control systems should accomplish
the following objectives:
- Lactating animals treated with medicinal agents
are:
- Identified, i.e., leg bands, chalk marks,
etc.; and/or
- Segregated; or
- Other means provided to preclude the
adulteration of milk offered for sale.
- Treatment Records include the following
information:
- Identity of the animal(s) treated;
- Date(s) of treatment;
- Drug (s) or other chemicals administered;
- Dosage administered;
- Milk discard time; and
- Withdrawal time prior to slaughter,
even if zero.
NOTE: Records may consist of paper and file
folders, card files, appointment book-type calendars, monthly paper calendars,
chalk boards (temporary records), electronic computer records, etc.
- Maintenance of Records: The proper use or misuse
of some animal drugs may cause prolonged residues in milk (4 to 45 days) and
meat (18 to 24 months). Verification of drug treatment records may be necessary
in the event of an investigation or traceback by the industry or Regulatory
Agency to identify specific treated animal(s) that may be related to a milk or
dairy beef residue. Producers should maintain all treatment records for a
minimum of two (2) years in the event of a need to traceback or follow up on a
confirmed milk or meat residue.
- Quarantine/segregation of treated animals or other
means to preclude the sale of milk or offering of treated animals for sale for
slaughter prior to the end of the prescribed withdrawal time.
- Education of all farm personnel involved in
treating animals on proper drug use and methods to avoid marketing adulterated
milk or meat for human food.
INSECT AND RODENT CONTROL
The complete elimination of flies from the farm premises is
practically unattainable. However, a major reduction of fly infestation
is obtainable by the dairy farm operator who conscientiously follows a
sustained program of sanitation, screening and the proper use of insecticides.
The milk producer or milk plant operator must be continually
aware of the potential hazard to people and animals which is inherent in most
pesticides, including insecticides and rodenticides. It is important that they
employ only those insecticides and rodenticides that are recommended by
competent authority for the insect and rodent problems they seek to overcome,
and that they follow implicitly the manufacturer's label directions for their
use. Questions on the use of pesticides should be referred to the
appropriate Regulatory Agency and/or County Agricultural Extension Agent.
Intermittent, time release, high-pressure insect fogging or
spraying systems shall be installed and operated in accordance with the
following guidelines:
- The insecticide must be registered with the
EPA.
- The label on the insecticide container shall
specify that the insecticide may be used on dairy farms and in milking areas.
- The label shall contain adequate instructions
for the safe use of the insecticide.
- The insecticide shall be designated for use
in an intermittent, time release, high-pressure insect fogging system and used
in accordance with the labeling directions.
- The container, tank or barrel of concentrated
insecticide or use solution and the pumping or pressurizing equipment shall not
be located in the milkhouse.
- Nozzles, which would emit, spray or fog the
insecticide shall not be located in the milkhouse.
- Nozzles shall be located, positioned and
operated so that they will not spray, fog, drip or drain any insecticide on
milk pipeline and return solution line openings, milking machine appurtenances,
including milk claws, inflations, flow sensors and interconnecting flexible
milk tubing, milk receivers or releasers, milk pumps, weigh jars, milk
measuring equipment or over any area where milk is poured, strained or
transferred.
- Nozzles shall be located, positioned and
operated so that they will not contaminate any feed or water.
- The fogging or spraying systems, which have
nozzles located in the milking barn or parlor shall not be operated during
milking. In addition, the system shall not operate during the washing and
sanitizing of milking equipment in a milking barn or parlor. This may be
accomplished by inter-wiring the system so that it will not operate when the
vacuum pump is operating or by a master cut-off switch with a conspicuously
posted sign warning the operator that the switch must be turned off while
milking and cleaning and sanitizing.
- The fogging or spraying system shall operate so that
only the amount of insecticide necessary to accomplish the intended purpose of
reducing fly and other insect populations is used. Excessive insecticide, which
leaves a film on exposed walls, floors, and equipment, should be considered a
violation of Item 19r of this Ordinance.
- These systems should be considered an adjunct to and not
a replacement for good sanitary practices of proper manure removal and disposal
to adequately control fly and other insect breeding on dairy farms.
Effective rodent control, like insect control, is dependent
on sanitation for much of its success. The careful elimination of trash and
woodpiles; the rodent-proofing of feed bins, corn cribs and similar
structures; the prompt removal of spilled feed and manure to places of ultimate
disposition; and the deliberate elimination of protected harborage areas in
farm buildings, all tend to discourage rodents near the dairy farm. Such
a program, also pays excellent dividends in feed savings, lowered maintenance
costs for farm buildings, reduced fire hazards and lessened risk of disease
outbreaks among farm animals.
Anticoagulant poisons, Warfarin, Fumarin, etc. have offered
improved means of controlling rodents on the farm. Used according to
directions, and with due precaution against their consumption by domestic
animals, these chemicals should keep the rodent population in check while additional
preventive programs are instituted.
REFERENCES
Bates, D. W. How to Plan Your Dairy Stall Barn, M-132
(Revised 1972) University of Minnesota.
Midwest Plan Service, Ames, Iowa, Plan No. 72327, Dairy
Barn, 60 Tie Stalls, Gable Roof, Liquid Manure 1974.
Bates, D. W. and J. F. Anderson, 1979. Calculation of
Ventilation Needs for Confined Cattle, J. of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 1979.
Midwest Plan Service, Ames, Iowa, Dairy Housing and
Equipment Handbook 1985.
